Zingiber Officianle Roscoe A Review: Botanical, Phytochemical and Pharmacological Aspects
Author(s)
Hafiz Ullah , Ishfaq Hameed , Khushnood Ur Rahman ,
Download Full PDF Pages: 60-73 | Views: 573 | Downloads: 168 | DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.4286879
Abstract
Human beings are using medicinal plants for curing diseases since time immemorial. Plant parts like root, rhizome, leaves, fruit, or seed, and their extracts are used to treat a variety of ailments. Similarly, ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, family Zingiberaceae) is also used as a remedy for controlling diseases like gastrointestinal disorders, analgesic, antidiabetic, cardiovascular, anticancer, larvicidal, and antiallergic problems. This review focuses on ethnomedicinal uses, cultivation, constituents, and pharmacological potentials and also shows macro-micro characteristics for authentication of the plant. This plant is used in enormous quantities by the people so the conservationists and even farmers should cultivate it to fulfill the requirement of not only the public but also pharmaceutical industries.
Keywords
Zingiber officinale, Pharmacological activities, Phytochemistry, Botanical aspect portion
References
i. Adeshina, G.O., S. Jibo, V.E. Agu, and J.O. Ehinmidu. 2011. Antibacterial activity of fresh juices of Allium cepa and Zingiber officinale against multidrug-resistant bacteria. International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences. 2(2):289–295.
ii. Aiyer, K.N and M. Kolammal. 1966. Pharmacognosy of Ayurvedic drugs, Kerala. Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Kerala, Trivandrum Kerala state, Series I, pp. 9.
iii. Akoachere, J.F., R.N. Ndip, E.B Chenwi, L.M. Ndip, T.E. Njock and D.N. Anong. 2002. Antibacterial effect of Zingiber officinale and Garcinia kola on respiratory tract pathogens. East Afr Med J. 79(11):588-592.
iv. Ali, B.H., G. Blunden, M.O Tanira and A. Nemmar. 2008. Some phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological properties of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe): A review of recent research. Food Chem. Toxicol. 46(2):409-420.
v. Altman, R.D., and K.C Marcussen. 2001. Effects of a ginger extract on knee pain in patients with osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 44:2531–2538.
vi. Al-Yahya, M.A., S. Rafatullah, J.S. Morsa, A.M. Ageel, N.S Parmar and M. Tariq. 1989. Gastro-protective activity of ginger, Zingiber officinale Roscoe in albino rats. Am J Chinese Med. 17:51-56.
vii. Ansari, M.N., U. Bhandari and K.K. Pillai. 2006. Ethanolic Zingiber officinale R. extract pretreatment alleviates isoproterenol-induced oxidative myocardial necrosis in rats. Indian J Exp Biol. 44(11):892-7.
viii. Azu, N.C., R.A. Onyeagba, O. Nworie and J. Kalu. 2006. Antibacterial Activity of Allium cepa (onions) and Zingiber officinale (Ginger) on Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from high vaginal swab. The Internet J Trop Med. 3(2):1-7.
ix. Bansod, S., and M. Rai. 2008. Antifungal activity of essential oils from Indian medicinal plants against human pathogenic Aspergillus fumigatus and A. niger. World Journal of Medical Sciences. 3(2):81–88.
x. Bao, L., A. Deng, Z. Li, G. Du and H. Qin. 2010. Chemical constituents of rhizomes of Zingiber officinale. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi. 35(5):598–601.
xi. Ben-Arye, E., A. Oren and A. Ben-Arie. 2006. Herbal medicine in womens' life cycle. Harefuah. 145(10):738-742.
xii. Betoni, J.E., R.P. Mantovani, L.N. Barbosa, L.C. Di-Stasi and J.A. Fernandes. 2006. Synergism between plant extract and antimicrobial drugs used on Staphylococcus aureus diseases. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 101(4):387-90.
xiii. Betz, O., P. Kranke, G. Geldner, H. Wulf and L.H. Eberhart. 2005. Is ginger a clinically relevant antiemetic? A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Forsch Komplementarmed Klass Naturheilkd. 12(1):14-23.
xiv. Bhandari, U., J.N. Sharma and R. Zafar. 1998. The protective action of ethanolic ginger (Zingiber officinale) extract in cholesterol fed rabbits. J. Ethnopharmacol. 61(2):167-171.
xv. Bode, A. 2003. Ginger is an effective inhibitor of HCT116 human colorectal carcinoma In vivo. Frontiers in Cancer Prevention Research Conference; Phoenix, AZ.
xvi. Bordia, A., S.K. Verma and K.C. Srivastava. 1997. Effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) and fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum L.) on blood lipids, blood sugar and platelet aggregation in patients with coronary artery disease. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 56:379–384.
xvii. Borrelli, F., R. Capasso, G. Aviello, M.H. Pittler and A.A. Izzo. 2005. Effectiveness and safety of ginger in the treatment of pregnancy-induced nausea and vomiting. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 105(4): 849-856.
xviii. Butt, M.S., and M.T. Sultan. 2011. Ginger and its health claims: molecular aspects. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 51(5):383–393.
xix. Chiang, H.M., P.D. Chao, S.L. Hsiu, K.C. Wen, S.Y. Tsai and Y.C. Hou. 2006. Ginger significantly decreased the oral bioavailability of cyclosporine in rats. Am J Chin Med. 34(5):845-55.
xx. Chrubasik, S., M.H. Pittler and B.D. Roufogalis. 2005. Zingiberis rhizoma: a comprehensive review on the ginger effect and efficacy profiles. Phytomedicine. 12(9):684–701.
xxi. Ciocon, J.O., D.G. Ciocon and D.J. Galindo. 2004. Dietary supplements in primary care. Botanicals can affect surgical outcomes and follow-up. Geriatrics. 59(9):20-4.
xxii. da Silva, C.F., M.S. Chalfoun, M.V. de Siqueira, D.M. dos S. Botelho, N. Lima and R.L. Batista. 2012. Evaluation of antifungal activity of essential oils against potentially mycotoxigenic Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Rev. bras. Farmacogn. 22(5):1002–1010.
xxiii. Daudu, O.M., A.A. Sekoni, S.O. Ogundipe, G.T. Erakpotobor and T.S. Olugbemi. 2012. The effect of supplementation of enzyme on performance and some blood chemistry parameters in broiler finisher chickens fed ginger by-product meal (Zingiber officinale). Int. J. Biosci. 2(7):59–65.
xxiv. De Lima, RMT., A.C. Dos Reis, A.P.M. de Menezes, J.V.O. Santos, J.W.G.O. Filho, J.R.O. Ferreira, M.V.O.B. de Alencar, A.M.O.F. da Mata, I.N. Khan, A. Islam, S.J. Uddin, E.S. Ali, M.T. Islam, S. Tripathi, S.K. Mishra, M.S. Mubarak and A.A.C Melo-Cavalcante. 2018. Protective and therapeutic potential of ginger (Zingiber officinale) extract and [6]-gingerol in cancer: A comprehensive review. Phytother. Res. 32(10):1885–1907.
xxv. Devasabaryam, S., and K. Koya. 2005. Insect Pests of Ginger. In: Ravindran, P and Babu, K (Eds.) (2005). Ginger: The Genus Zingiber. Florida, USA: CRC Press. pp 367-389.
xxvi. Dohroo, N.P. 2005. Bacterial Diseases of Ginger and their Control. In: Ravindran, P and Babu, K (Eds.) Ginger: The Genus Zingiber. Florida, USA: CRC Press, pp 305-340.
xxvii. Dubey, R.D., S. Verma, D. Rane, V.K. Wani, A.K. Pandey and S. Paroha. 2010. Comparative studies of anthelmintic activity of Zingiber officinale and Cassia tora. International Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 1(1):1-4.
xxviii. Ebewele, R.O., and A.A. Jimoh. 1988. Feasibility study of Kaduna stat Ginger Processing Industry. Ahmadu Bello University; Chemical Engineering Consultant, pp. 1-45, 50, 56, 63, 80.
xxix. Ekundayo, O., I. Laakso and R. Hiltunen. 1988. Composition of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) volatile oils from Nigeria. Flavour and Fragrance Journal. 3(2):85–90.
xxx. El-Baroty, S.G., H.H. Abd El Baky, S.R. Farag and A.M. Saleh. 2012. Characterization of antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds of cinnamon and ginger essential oils. African Journal of Biochemistry Research. 4(6):167-174.
xxxi. El-Ghorab, A.H., M. Nauman, F.M. Anjum, S. Hussain and M. Nadeem. 2010. A comparative study on chemical composition and antioxidant activity of ginger (Zingiber officinale) and cumin (Cuminum cyminum). J. Agric. Food Chem. 58:8231–8237.
xxxii. El-Rokh, S.M., N.A. Yassin, S.M. El-Shenawy and B.M. Ibrahim. 2010. Anti-hypercholesterolaemic effect of ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale) in rats. Inflammopharmacology. 18(6):1309-15.
xxxiii. Eric, C.W.C., Y.Y. Lim and S.K. Wong. 2011. Antioxidant properties of ginger leaves: an overview. Free Radic Res. 1:6–16.
xxxiv. Ernst, E., and M.H. Pittler. 2000. Efficacy of ginger for nausea and vomiting: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials. Br. J. Anaesth. 84:367–371.
xxxv. Evans, W.C. 2009. Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy. 16th ed, W. B. Saunders Publisher, London, New York. 289-292 p.
xxxvi. Fawzi, E.M., A.A. Khalil and A.F. Afifi. 2009. Antifungal effect of some plant extracts on Alternaria alternata and Fusarium oxysporum. Afri. J. Biotechnol. 8(11):2590–2597.
xxxvii. Fuhrman, B., M. Rosenblat, T. Hayek, R. Coleman and M. Aviram. 2000. Ginger extract consumption reduces plasma cholesterol, inhibits LDL oxidation and attenuates development of atherosclerosis in atherosclerotic, apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. J Nutr. 130(5):1124-1131.
xxxviii. Gao, D., and Y. Zhang. 2010. Comparative antibacterial activities of crude polysaccharides and flavonoids from Zingiber officinale and their extraction. Asian J Trad Med. 5:235–238.
xxxix. Ghazanfar, S.A., and R.M. Smith. 1982. Flora of Pakistan, family Zingiberaceae, vol. 146. National Herbarium, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad and Royal Botanical Garden, Edinburg, Scotland. 6 p.
xl. Gonlachanvit, S., Y.H. Chen, W.L. Hasler, W.M. Sun and C. Owyang. 2003. Ginger reduces hyperglycemia-evoked gastric dysrhythmias in healthy humans: possible role of endogenous prostaglandins. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 307(3):1098-1103.
xli. Govindarajan, V.S. 1982. Ginger—chemistry, technology, and quality evaluation. Part 1. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 17(1):1–96.
xlii. Grant, K.L., and R.B. Lutz. 2000. Alternative therapies: ginger. Am. J. Health-Syst. Pharm. 57:945–947.
xliii. Grøntved, A., T. Brask, J. Kambskard and E. Hentzer. 1988. Ginger root against seasickness. A controlled trial on the open sea. Acta oto-laryngologica, 105(1-2):45-49.
xliv. Grzanna, R., L. Lindmark and C.G. Frondoza. 2005. Ginger—an herbal medicinal product with broad anti-inflammatory actions. Journal of Medicinal Food, 8(2):125–132.
xlv. Gujral, S., H. Bhumura and M. Swaroop. 1978. Effect of ginger oleoresin on serum and hepatic cholesterol levels in cholesterol fed rats. Nutr Report Internat, 17:183-189.
xlvi. Gull, I., M. Saeed, H. Shaukat, S.M. Aslam, Z.Q. Samra and A.M. Athar. 2012. Inhibitory effect of Allium sativum and Zingiber officinale extracts on clinically important drug resistant pathogenic bacteria. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials, 11(8): http://doi.org/10.1186/1476-0711-11-8.
xlvii. Gupta, S., P. Pandotra, G. Ram, R. Anand, A.P. Gupta, K. Husain, Y.S. Bedi and G.R. Mallavarapu. 2011. Composition of a monoterpenoid-rich essential oil from the rhizome of Zingiber officinale from north western Himalayas. Nat Prod Commun. 6(1):93–6.
xlviii. Haniadka, R., A.G. Rajeev, P.L. Palatty, R. Arora and M.S. Baliga. 2012. Zingiber officinale (ginger) as an anti-emetic in cancer chemotherapy: a review. Altern Complement Med., 18(5): 440 -444.
xlix. Hou, Y.M., S.F. Wu and Y.G. Shen. 2007. Studies on extraction of ginger polysaccharide. Acta Agriculturae Universitis Jiangxiensis. 29(3):466-469.
l. Idris, N.A., H.M. Yasin and A. Usman. 2019. Voltammetric and spectroscopic determination of polyphenols and antioxidants in ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). Heliyon, 5(5): doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01717. eCollection 2019 May.
li. Iqbal, Z., Q.K. Nadeem, M.N. Khan, M.S. Akhtar and F.N. Waraich. 2001. In vitro anthelmintic activity of Allium sativum, Zingiber officinale, Curcurbita mexicana and Ficus religiosa. Int J Agri Biol. 3(4):454-457.
lii. Islam, K., A.A. Rowsni, M.M. Khan and M.S. Kabir. 2014. Antimicrobial activity of ginger (Zingiber officinale) extracts against food-borne pathogenic bacteria. International Journal of Science, Environment and Technology. 3(3):867–871.
liii. Islam, M.S., and H. Choi. 2008. Comparative effects of dietary ginger (Zingiber officinale) and garlic (Allium sativum) investigated in a type 2 diabetes model of rats. J Med Food. 11(1):152-159.
liv. Jeena, K., V.B. Liju and R. Kuttan. 2013. Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities of essential oil from ginger. Indian J. Physiol Pharmacol. See comment in PubMed Commons below57(1):51-62.
lv. Jolad, S.D., R.C. Lantz, G.J. Chen, R.B. Bates and B.N. Timmermann. 2005. Commercially processed Zingiber officinale: Composition and effects on LPS-stimulated PGE2 production. Phytochemistry. 66(13): 1614-1635.
lvi. Ju, S.A., S.M. Park, Y.S. Lee, J.H. Bae, R. Yu, W.G. An, J.H. Suh and B.S. Kim. 2012. Administration of 6-gingerol greatly enhances the number of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in murine tumors. Int J Cancer. 130(11):2618–28.
lvii. Kadnur, S.V., and R.K. Goyal. 2005. Beneficial effects of Zingiber officinale Roscoe on fructose induced hyperlipidemia and hyperinsulinemia in rats. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology. 43(12):1161-1164.
lviii. Kamar, A., and A. Haywood. 2005. Diseases of Ginger, In: Ravindran, P and Babu, K (Eds.) (2005). Ginger: The Genus Zingiber. Florida, USA: CRC Press. pp 341-365.
lix. Kato, A., Y. Higuchi, H. Goto, H. Kizu, T. Okamoto, N. Asano, J. Hollinshead, R.J. Nash and I. Adachi. 2006. Inhibitory effects of Zingiber officinale Roscoe derived components on aldose reductase activity in vitro and in vivo. J Agric Food Chem. 54(18):6640-6644.
lx. Kim, E.C., J.K. Min, T.Y. Kim, S.J. Lee, H.O. Yang, S. Han, Y.M. Kim and Y.G. Kwon. 2005. [6]-Gingerol, a pungent ingredient of ginger inhibits angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 335:300–308.
lxi. Kim, J.S., S.I. Lee, H.W. Park, J.H. Yang, T.Y. Shin, Y.C. Kim, N.I. Baek, S.H. Kim, S.U. Choi, B.M. Kwon, K.H. Leem, M.Y. Jung and D.K. Kim. 2008. Cytotoxic components from the dried rhizomes of Zingiber officinale Roscoe. Arch Pharm Res. 31(4):415-418.
lxii. Kim, S.O., K.S. Chun, J.K. Kundu and Y.J. Surh. 2004. Inhibitory effects of [6]-gingerol on PMA-induced COX-2 expression and activation of NF-kappaB and p38 MAPK in mouse skin. Biofactors. 21(1-4):27-31.
lxiii. Kim, S.O., J.K. Kundu, Y.K. Shin, J.H. Park, M.H. Cho, T.Y. Kim and Y.J. Surh. 2005. [6]-Gingerol inhibits COX-2 expression by blocking the activation of p38 MAP kinase and NF-kappaB in phorbol ester-stimulated mouse skin. Oncogene. 24(15):2558-2567.
lxiv. Kobayashi, M., Y. Tshida, N. Shoji and Y. Okizumi. 1988. Cardiotonic action of [8] – gingerol, an activator of the Ca++ pumping adenosine triphosphatase of sarcoplasmic reticulum, in guinea pig atrial muscle. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 246(2):667-673.
lxv. Kobayashi, H., N. Mizuno, H. Teramae, H. Kutsuna, S. Ueoku, J. Onoyama, K. Yamanaka, N. Fujita and M. Ishii. 2004. Diet and Japanese herbal medicine for recalcitrant atopic dermatitis: efficacy and safety. Drugs Exp Clin Res. 30(5-6):197-202.
lxvi. Kubra, I.R., and L. Jaganmohanrao. 2012. An overview on inventions related to ginger processing and products for food and pharmaceutical applications. Recent Pat Food Nutr Agric., 4(1):31- 49.
lxvii. Kruawan, K., and K. Kangsadalampai. 2006. Antioxidant activity, phenolic compound contents and antimutagenic activity of some water extract of herbs. Thai J. Pharm. Sci. 30:28–35.
lxviii. Kruth, P., E. Brosi, R. Fux, K. Morike and C.H. Gleiter. 2004. Ginger-associated overanticoagulation by phenprocoumon. Ann Pharmacother. 38(2):257-260.
lxix. Langner, E., S. Greifenberg and J. Gruenwald. 1998. Ginger: history and use. Advances in Therapy. 15(1): 25–44.
lxx. Lawrence, B.M. 2000. Progress in essential oils. Ginger oil. Perfum and Flav. 25: 55 – 58.
lxxi. Lee, H.S., E.Y. Seo, N.E. Kang and W.K. Kim. 2008. [6]-gingerol inhibits metastasis of MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells. J Nutr Biochem. 19(5):313–9.
lxxii. Lee, Y.B., Y.S. Kim and C.R. Ahmore. 1986. Antioxidant property in ginger rhizoma and its application to mait products. J Food Sci., 51(1):20-23.
lxxiii. Li, Y., V.H. Tran, C.C. Duke and B.D. Roufogalis. 2012. Gingerols of Zingiber officinale enhance glucose uptake by increasing cell surface GLUT4 in cultured L6 myo-tubes. Planta Medica. 78(14): 1549–1555.
lxxiv. Liang, M.H. 1992. From America: Cookbook medicine or food for thought: Practice guidelines development in USA. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 51:1257–1258.
lxxv. Liu, H., N. Qiu, H. Ding and R. Yao. 2008. Polyphenols contents and antioxidant capacity of 68 Chinese herbals suitable for medical or food uses. Food Res. Int. 41:363–370.
lxxvi. Lv, L., H. Chen, D. Soroka, X. Chen, T. Leung and S. Sang. 2012. 6-Gingerdiols as the major metabolites of 6-gingerol in cancer cells and in mice and their cytotoxic effects on human cancer cells. J. Agric. Food Chem. 60(45):11372–11377.
lxxvii. Manju, V., and N. Nalini. 2005. Chemopreventive efficacy of ginger, a naturally occurring anticarcinogen during the initiation, post-initiation stages of 1,2 dimethylhydrazine-induced colon cancer. Clin Chim Acta. 358(1-2):60-67.
lxxviii. Manusirivithaya, S., S. Manusirivithaya, M. Sripramote, S. Tangjitgamol, C. Sheanakul, S. Leelahakorn, T. Thavaramara and K. Tangcharoenpanich. 2004. Antiemetic effect of ginger in gynecologic oncology patients receiving cisplatin. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 14(6):1063-9.
lxxix. Mao, Q.Q., X.Y. Xu, S.Y. Cao, R.Y. Gan, H. Corke, T. Beta and H.B. Li. 2019. Bioactive Compounds and Bioactivities of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). Foods, 8(6): doi: 10.3390/foods8060185.
lxxx. Marx, W., K. Reid, A.L. McCarthy, L. Vitetta, A. Sali, D. McKavanagh and L. Isenring. 2017. Ginger-Mechanism of action in chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: A review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr., 57(1): 141-146.
lxxxi. Min, B.R., L.E. Marsh, K. Brathwaite and A.O. Daramola. 2017. Effects of tissue culture and mycorrhiza applications in organic farming on concentrations of phytochemicals and antioxidant capacities in ginger (Zingiber Officinale Roscoe) rhizomes and leaves. J Food Sci., 82(4): 873-881.
lxxxii. Mo, K.J., C. Cheng, P. Huang and S.H. Wu. 2005. Study on extraction technology, purification and structural appraisal of flavonoid from ginger. Food Science. 26(9):229-233.
lxxxiii. Mowrey, D.B., and D.E. Clayson. 1982. Motion sickness, ginger and psychophysics. The Lancet. 319(8273):655-657.
lxxxiv. Murakami, A., T. Tanaka, J.Y. Lee, Y.J. Surh, H.W. Kim, K. Kawabata, N. Yoshimasa, S. Jiwajinda and H. Ohigashi. 2004. Zerumbone, a sesquiterpene in subtropical ginger, suppresses skin tumor initiation and promotion stages in ICR mice. Int. J. Cancer. 110(4):481-90.
lxxxv. Nadkarni, K.M. 1976. Zingiber officinale. In Indian Materia Medica, Popular Prakashan, Bombay. 1308–1315p.
lxxxvi. Nagasawa, H., K. Watanabe and H. Inatomi. 2002. Effects of bitter melon (Momordica charantia L.) or ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale Rosc) on spontaneous mammary tumorigenesis in SHN mice. Am J Chin Med. 30(2-3):195-205.
lxxxvii. Nigam, N., J. George, S. Srivastava, P. Roy, K. Bhui, M. Singh and M. Shukla. 2010. Induction of apoptosis by [6]-gingerol associated with the modulation of p53 and involvement of mitochondrial signaling pathway in B[a]P-induced mouse skin tumorigenesis. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 65: 687– 696.
lxxxviii. Noipha, K., S. Ratanachaiyavong and P. Ninla-aesong. 2010. Enhancement of glucose transport by selected plant foods in musscle cell line L6. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice. 89(2): 22–26.
lxxxix. Nwinuka, N.M., G.O. Ibeh and G.I. Ekeke. 2005. Proximate composition and levels of some toxicants in four commonly consumed spices. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Mgt. 9(1):150–155.
xc. Nybe, E.V., and N.M. Raj. 2005. Ginger production in India and other South Asian countries. In: Ravindran, P and Babu, K (Eds.) (2005). Ginger: The Genus Zingiber. Florida, USA: CRC Press. 211-240p.
xci. Oliveira, C.H., M.E. Moraes, M.O. Moraes, F.A. Bezerra, E. Abib and G. De-Nucci. 2005. Clinical toxicology study of an herbal medicinal extract of Paullinia cupana, Trichilia catigua, Ptychopetalum olacoides and Zingiber officinale (Catuama) in healthy volunteers. Phytother Res. 19(1):54 -57.
xcii. Onwuka, G.I., G.U. Nwokoha and G.N. Asumugha. 2002. Evaluation of processing methods for the production of ginger drinks. Proceedings of 26th Annual NIFST Conference, Owerr.
xciii. Onyeagba, R.A., O.C. Ugbogu, C.U. Okeke and O. Iroakasi. 2004. Studies on the antimicrobial effects of garlic (Allium sativum Linn), ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) and lime (Citrus aurantifolia Linn). Afri. J. Biotechnol. 3(10):552–554.
xciv. Palaniswamy, U.R. 2003. A guide to Medicinal Plants of Asian origin and culture. CPL Press: United States of America.
xcv. Palatty, P.L., R. Haniadka, B. Valder, R. Arora, M.S. Baliga. 2013. Ginger in the prevention of nausea and vomiting: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr., 53(7): 659 – 69.
xcvi. Park, G.H., J.H. Park, H.M. Song, H.J. Eo, M.K. Kim, J.W. Lee, M.H. Lee, K-H. Cho, J.R. Lee, H.J. Cho and J.B. Jeong. 2014. Anti-cancer activity of Ginger (Zingiber officinale) leaf through the expression of activating transcription factor 3 in human colorectal cancer cells. BMC Complement Altern Med. 14:408.
xcvii. Park, M., J. Bae and D.S. Lee. 2008. Antibacterial activity of [10]-gingerol and [12]-gingerol isolated from ginger rhizome against periodontal bacteria. Phytother Res. 22(11):1446-1449.
xcviii. Park, Y.J., J. Wen, S. Bang, S.W. Park and S.Y. Song. 2006. [6]-Gingerol induces cell cycle arrest and cell death of mutant p53-expressing pancreatic cancer cells. Yonsei Med J. 47(5):688-97.
xcix. Penna, S.C., M.V. Medeiros, F.S. Aimbire, H.C. Faria-Neto, J.A. Sertié and R.A. Lopes-Martins. 2003. Anti-inflammatory effect of the hydralcoholic extract of Zingiber officinale rhizomes on rat paws and skin edema. Phytomedicine. 10(5):381-385.
c. Polasa, K., and K. Nirmala. 2003. Ginger: its role in xenobiotic metabolism. ICMR Bull. 33:57–62.
ci. Purnomo, H., F. Jaya and S.B. Widjanarko. 2010. The effects of type and time of thermal processing on ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) rhizome antioxidant compounds and its quality. International Food Research Journal. 17:335-347.
cii. Purseglove, J.W., E.G. Brown, C.L. Green and S.R.J. Robbins. 1981. Spices. Volume 2, Tropical Agriculture Series. Essex. UK.: Longman Group Ltd.
ciii. Qin, W.D., L.H. Ma, X.H. Chen and Y. Zhao. 2008. Study on extraction and deprotein of polysacharide in ginger. Food Science. 29(4):218-220.
civ. Raina, V.K., A. Kumar and K.K. Aggarwal. 2005. Essential oil composition of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) rhizomes from different place in India. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants. 8(2): 187–191.
cv. Raji, Y., U.S. UUdoh, O.O. Oluwadara, O.S. Akinsomisoye, O. Awobajo and K. Adeshoga. 2002. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of the rhizome extract of Zingiber officinale. Afr. J. Biomed. Res. 5: 121–124.
cvi. Rasmussen, P. 2011. Ginger--Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae. J Prim Health Care. 3(3):235-6.
cvii. Remadevi, R., E. Surendran and P. Ravindran. 2005. Properties and Medicinal Uses of Ginger. In: Ravindran, P and Babu, K (Eds.) (2005). Ginger: The Genus Zingiber. Florida, USA: CRC Press. 489-508p.
cviii. Rhode, J., S. Fogoros, S. Zick, H. Wahl, K.A. Griffith, J. Huang and J.R. Liu. 2007. Ginger inhibits cell growth and modulates angiogenic factors in ovarian cancer cells. BMC Compl Altern. Medicine. 7(1):1.
cix. Rockville, M.D. 1998. Ginger: Botanical Monograph Series. United States Pharmacopeial Convention.
cx. Rong-Jyh, L., C. Chung-Yi, C. Li-Yu and Y. Chuan-Min. 2010. Larvicidal activities of ginger (Zingiber officinale) against Angiostrongylus cantonensis. Acta Tropica. 115(1-2):69-76.
cxi. Roy, B., B.K. Jan and G.G. Maiti. 2013. Morpho-anatomical diversity of the rhizomes of some medicinal and aromatic plants of Zingiberaceae. Intl. J Chem Pharm Res. 2(8):197–203.
cxii. Sasidharan, I., W. Venugopal and A.N. Menon. 2012. Essential oil composition of two unique ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) cultivars from Sikkim. Nat Prod Res. 26(19):1759-64.
cxiii. Sebiomo, A., A.D. Awofodu, A.O. Awosanya, F.E. Awotona and A.J. Ajayi. 2011. Comparative studies of antibacterial effect of some antibiotics and ginger (Zingiber officinale) on two pathogenic bacteria. Journal of Microbiology and Antimicrobials. 3(1):18-22.
cxiv. Sekiya, K., A. Ohtani and S. Kusano. 2004. Enhancement of insulin sensitivity in adipocytes by ginger. Biofactors. 22(1-4):153-156.
cxv. Semwal, R.B., D.K. Semwal, S. Combrinck and A.M. Viljoen. 2015. Gingerols and shogaols: Important nutraceutical principles from ginger. Phytochemistry, 117: 554-568.
cxvi. Shah, J.J., and E.C. Raju. 1975. General morphology, growth and branching behavior of the rhizomes of ginger turmeric and mango ginger. New Bot. 2(1–2):59–69.
cxvii. Sharma, J.N., K.C. Srivastava and E.K. Gan. 1994. Suppresive effects of eugenol and ginger oil on arthritic rats. Pharmacology. 49: 314 – 318.
cxviii. Shen, C.L., K.J. Hong and S.W. Kim. 2003. Effects of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) on decreasing the production of inflammatory mediators in sow osteoarthrotic cartilage explants. J Med Food. 6(4): 323-328.
cxix. Shirin, A.P.R., and J. Prakash. 2010. Chemical composition and antioxidant properties of ginger root (Zingiber officinale). J. Med. Plant Res. 4(24): 2674–2679.
cxx. Shoji, N., A. Iwasa, T. Jakemoto, Y. Ishida and Y. Ohizuma. 1982. Cardiotonic principle of ginger (Zinigiber officinale Roscoe). J Pharm Sci. 71(10):1174-1175.
cxxi. Shukla, Y., and M. Singh. 2007. Cancer preventive properties of ginger: a brief review. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 45(5):683–690.
cxxii. Singh, S.K. 2009. Advanced practical Botany. Campus Books International 4831/24, Prahlad Street, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj New Delhi-110002, India.
cxxiii. Sookkongwaree, K., M. Geitmann, S. Roengsumran, A. Petsom and U.H. Danielson. 2006. Inhibition of viral proteases by Zingiberaceae extracts and flavones isolated from Kaempferia parviflora. Pharmazie. 61(8):717-21.
cxxiv. Sripramote, M., and N. Lekhyananda. 2003. A randomized comparison of ginger and vitamin B6 in the treatment of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. J Med Assoc Thai. 86(9):846-53.
cxxv. Srivastava, K.C. 1984a. Aqueous extracts of onion, garlic and ginger inhibit platelet aggregation and alter arachidonic acid metabolism. Biomed Biochem Acta. 43(8-9):335-346.
cxxvi. Srivastava, K.C. 1984b. Effect of aqueous extracts of onion, garlic and ginger on the platelet aggregation and metabolism of arachidonic acid in the blood vascular system: In vitro study. Prostaglandins Leukot Med. 13(2):227-235.
cxxvii. Srivastava, K.C. 1986. Isolation and effects of some ginger components of platelet aggregation and eicasonoid biosynthesis. Prostaglandins Leukot Med. 25(2-3):187-198.
cxxviii. Stewart, J., M.J. Wood, C.D. Wood and M.E. Mims. 1991. Effects of ginger on motion sickness susceptibility and gastric function. Pharmacology. 42(2):111-120.
cxxix. Sultan, M., H.N. Bhatti and Z. Iqbal. 2005. Chemical analysis of essential oil of ginger (Zingiber officinale). Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences. 8(11):1576–1578.
cxxx. Tahir, A.A., N.F. Sani, N.A. Murad, S. Makpol, W.Z. Ngah and Y.A. Yusof. 2015. Combined ginger extract & Gelam honey modulate Ras/ERK and PI3K/AKT pathway genes in colon cancer HT29 cells. Nutr J. 14(31):doi:10.1186/s12937-015-0015-2.
cxxxi. Tan, B.K.H., and J. Vanitha. 2004. Immunomodulatory and antibacterial effects of some traditional Chinese medicinal herbs: A review. Curr. Med. Chem. 11(11):1423-1430.
cxxxii. Tanabe, M., Y.D. Chen, K. Saits and Y. Kano. 1993. Cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitory component from Zingiber officinale Roscoe. Chem Pharm Bull. 41(4):710-713.
cxxxiii. Tewtrakul, S., and S. Subhadhirasakul. 2007. Anti-allergic activity of some selected plants in the Zingiberaceae family. J Ethnopharmacol. 109(3):535-538.
cxxxiv. Thomson, M., K.K. Al Qattan, S.M. Al Sawan, M.A. Alnaqeeb, I. Khan and M. Ali. 2002. The use of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) as a potential anti-inflammatory and antithrombotic agent. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 67(6):475–478.
cxxxv. Toure, A., and Z. Xiaoming. 2007. Gas chromatographic analysis of volatile components of Guinean and Chinese ginger oils (Zingiber officinale) extracted by steam distillation. Journal of Agronomy. 6(2):350-355.
cxxxvi. Tyler, V.E., L.R. Brady and J.E. Robbers. 1981. Pharmacognosy. (8th Edition). Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia. 156p.
cxxxvii. Utpala, P., A. Johny, V.A. Parthasarathy, K. Jayarajan and M.S. Madan. 2006. Diversity of Ginger Cultivation in India – a GIS Study. Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops. 15(2):93-99.
cxxxviii. Wagner, H., and H. Hikino. 1965. Economic and Medicinal Plants Research, vol.1. Academic Press, New York. 62p.
cxxxix. Wallis, T.E. 1985. Text book of pharmacognosy. S. K. Jain for CBS Publisher & Distributors, 485 Jain Bhawan Bhola Nath Nagr, Shahdara, Delhi-11 00 32, India.
cxl. Wang, N., and Y.L. Chu. 2009. Study on ultrasound-assisted extraction of flavonoid from Zingiber and antibacterial activity. Journal of Jiangsu University of Science and Technology (Natural Science Edition). 23(5):450-453.
cxli. Wang, W.H., and Z.M. Wang. 2005. Studies of commonly used traditional medicine-ginger. Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi. 30(20):1569–1573.
cxlii. Warrier, P.K. 1989. Spices in Ayurveda. In: Strategies for Export Development of Spices. Ed. C.K. George, C.R. Sivadasan, D. Devakaran and K.P. Sreekumari, Spices Board, Cochin and International Trade Centre, Geneva. 28p.
cxliii. Weil, A. 2005. Antimicrobial activity of ginger against different microorganisms: New York. 300-308p.
cxliv. White, B. 2007. Ginger: an overview. American Family Physician. 75(11): 1689–1691.
cxlv. Williamson, E (Editor). 2002. Major Herbs of Ayurveda. Compiled by the Dabur Research Foundation. Ghaziabad, India. Edinburgh. Churchill Livingstone for Elsevier Science.
cxlvi. Wohlmuth, H., D.N. Leach, M.K. Smith and S.P. Myers. 2005. Gingerol content of diploid and tetraploid clones of ginger (Zingiber Officinale Roscoe). J. Agric Food Chem. 53(14): 5772-5778.
cxlvii. Wohlmuth, H., M.K. Smith, L.O. Brooks, S.P. Myers and D.N. Leach. 2006. Essential oil composition of diploid and tetraploid clones of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) grown in Australia. J. Agric Food Chem. 54(4):1414–1419.
cxlviii. Wood, C.D. 1988. Comparison of efficacy of ginger with various antimicrobial sickness drugs. Clinical Research Practices and Drug Regulatory Affairs. 6(2):129-136
cxlix. Worwood, V. 1990. The Fragrant Pharmacy. London. UK: McMillan London Ltd.
cl. Wu, H., M.C. Hsieh, C.Y. Lo, C.B. Liu, S. Sang, C.T. Ho and M.H. Pan .2010. 6-Shogaol is more effective than 6-gingerol and curcumin in inhibiting 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate-induced tumor promotion in mice. Mol Nutr Food Res. 54(9):1296–306.
cli. Xizhen, A., S. Jinfeng and X. Xia. 2005. Ginger Production in Southeast Asia. In: Ravindran, P and Babu, K (Eds.) (2005). Ginger: The Genus Zingiber. Florida, USA: CRC Press. 241-278p.
clii. Yamahara, J., and Q. Huang. 1990. Gastrointestinal motility enhancing effect of ginger and its active constituents. Chem Pharm Bull. 38:430-431.
cliii. Yong-liang, J., Z. Jun-ming, Z. Lin-hui, S. Bao-shan, B. Meng-jing, L. Fen-fen, S. Jian, S. Hui-jun, Z. Yu-qing and X. Qiang-min. 2011. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of ginger oil. Chinese Herbal Medicines. 3(2):150–155.
cliv. Yoshimi, N., A. Wang, Y. Morishita, T. Tanaka, S. Sugie, K. Kawai, J. Yamahara and H. Mori. 1992. Modifying effects of fungal and herb metabolites on azoxymethane-induced intestinal carcinogenesis in rats. Jpn J Cancer Res. 83(12):1273-8.
clv. Young, H.Y., Y.L. Luo, Y.H. Cheng, W.C. Hsich, J.C. Liao and W.H. Peng. 2005. Analgesic and anti- inflammatory activities of 6-gingerol. J Ethnopharmacol. 96(1-2):207-210.
clvi. Yu, J., C.H. Yun, Z.J. Gao, X.F. Zhao, C.N. Xiao, M.F. Fang and X.H. Zheng. 2009. Study on antimicrobial of ginger extracting components. Nat Prod Res Dev. 21(10): 459-461.
clvii. Yu, Y., T. Huang, B. Yang, X. Liu and G. Duan. 2007. Development of gas chromatography–mass spectrometry with microwave distillation and simultaneous solid-phase microextraction for rapid determination of volatile constituents in ginger. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis. 43(1):24–31.
clviii. Zhang, F., K. Thakur, F. Hu, J.G. Zhang and Z.J. Wei. 2017. Cross-talk between 10-gingerol and its anti-cancerous potential: a recent update. Food Funct. 18(8):2635–2649.
clix. Zhao, H.B., Z.H. Wang, F. He, H. Meng, J.H. Peng and J.L. Shi. 2015. Analysis of volatile oils from different processed products of Zingiber officinale rhizome by GC-MS. Zhong Yao Cai. 38(4):723
Cite this Article: